Insulin Pump free essay sample

Introduction:1 †¢ Type 1 Diabetes2 †¢ Type 2 Diabetes2 †¢ Gestational Diabetes2 2. Scope:3 3. The insulin pump hardware organization:3 4. Need:4 5. Requirements for the insulin pump:4 6. Risks Analysis5 6. 1 Business Impact Risks:5 6. 2 Customer related risks:5 6. 3 Technology risks:6 7. Risk table:6 7. 1 Technology will meet expectations:6 7. 2 End users resist system:7 7. 3 Changes in Requirements7 7. 4 Lack of development experience:7 7. 5 Poor quality documentation:8 8. Insulin delivery system8 . Requirement Models9 10. Interfaces For The Automatic Insulin Pump10 11. Data Flow Diagram14 12. Summary15 13. References16 Introduction: The problem of diabetes is a growing concern in the world, especially among Americans. Diabetes is a medical condition where the body does not manufacture its own insulin. Insulin is used to metabolize sugar and, if it is not available, the person suffering from diabetes will eventually be poisoned by the build-up of sugar. It is importan t to maintain blood sugar levels within a safe range as high levels of blood sugar have long-term complications such as kidney damage and eye damage. These are not however, normally dangerous in the short-term. We will write a custom essay sample on Insulin Pump or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Very low levels of blood sugar (hypoglaecemia) are potentially very dangerous in the short-term. They result in a shortage of sugar to the brain which causes confusion and ultimately a diabetic coma and death. In such circumstances, it is important for the diabetic to eat something to increase their blood sugar level. An estimated 23. 6 million people in the United States—7. 8 percent of the population—have diabetes, a serious, lifelong condition. Of those, 17. 9 million have been diagnosed, and 5. 7 million have not yet been diagnosed. In 2007, about 1. million people ages 20 or older were diagnosed with diabetes [pic] The three main types of diabetes are †¢ type 1 diabetes †¢ type 2 diabetes †¢ gestational diabetes †¢ Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease. An autoimmune disease results when the body’s system for fighting infection—the immune system—turns against a part of the body. In diabetes, the immune sy stem attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. The pancreas then produces little or no insulin. A person who has type 1 diabetes must take insulin daily to live. †¢ Type 2 Diabetes The most common form of diabetes is type 2 diabetes. About 90 to 95 percent of people with diabetes have type 2. This form of diabetes is most often associated with older age, obesity, family history of diabetes, previous history of gestational diabetes, physical inactivity, and certain ethnicities. About 80 percent of people with type 2 diabetes are overweight. †¢ Gestational Diabetes Some women develop gestational diabetes late in pregnancy. Although this form of diabetes usually disappears after the birth of the baby, women who have had gestational diabetes have a 40 to 60 percent chance of developing type 2 diabetes within 5 to 10 years. Maintaining a reasonable body weight and being physically active may help prevent development of type 2 diabetes. The easiest way for Type 2 patients to manage their health is through a healthy diet and exercise plan. For Type 1 patients, treatment almost always involves the daily injection of insulin, which is the focus of the Automated Insulin Pump System (AIPS). Currently, there are two ways in which a patient can administer insulin. In the first method, the user must check his or her blood sugar with a glucose sensor, calculate the appropriate amount of insulin to administer, and personally inject the insulin. In the second method, the patient uses an AIPS. The AIPS detects the level of glucose in the user’s blood, calculates the amount of insulin need, then triggers a pump to administer the correct dosage to the user via a needle that inserted into the user. Both of these methods require the user to play a critical role in his or her treatment. Using the AIPS minimizes the possibility of errors occurring. To accomplish this, the AIPS integrates the blood glucose sensor and the insulin pump into one system. Integrating these two processes allows the autonomous delivery of insulin to the user. This ability of the system to remove the user from the glucose self monitoring and injection process allows diabetics to live a healthier and more enjoyable lifestyle. Scope: We are developing a that system measures the level of blood sugar every 10 minutes and if this level is above a certain value and is increasing then the dose of insulin to counteract the increase is computed and injected into the diabetic. The system can also detect abnormally low levels of blood sugar and, if these occur, an alarm is sounded to warn the diabetic that they should take some action. This report focuses on the control software for the insulin pump which is concerned with reading the blood sugar (glucose) sensor, computing the insulin requirements and controlling the micro pump which causes the insulin to be delivered. Automatic insulin delivery systems help to keep blood glucose level under control. Administering insulin with different methods aims to improve patients comfort and convenience. Automated Insulin pumps are little computerized insulin deliverers. Automatic insulin delivery systems can be used for treating type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes, juvenile diabetes, diabetes mellitus and alike. But, the information about diabetes is crucial for having the perfect diabetes medication. The insulin pump hardware organization: An insulin pump is a safety-critical system which is used to deliver regular doses of insulin to diabetics. A block diagram of the insulin pump assembly is shown below. Note that the small boxes marked s indicate a sensor. [pic] Figure 2: The insulin pump hardware organization †¢ Needle assembly Connected to pump. Component used to deliver insulin into diabetic’s body. †¢ Sensor Measures the level of sugar in the patient’s blood. The input from the sensor is represented by Reading in the following specification. Pump Pumps insulin from a reservoir to the needle assembly. The value representing the number of increments of insulin to be administered is represented by dose! in the following specification. †¢ Controller Controls the entire system. This has a three position switch (off/auto/manual) plus a button to set the number o f units of insulin to be delivered (1 unit per press). Moving the switch to the manual position causes the blood sugar measurement and automated insulin delivery to be disabled but information is maintained about the amount of insulin delivered and the reservoir capacity. †¢ Alarm Sounded if there is some problem. The value sent to the alarm is represented alarm! In the following specification. Displays There are 3 displays. These displays are represented by display1, display2 and clock in the following specification. display1 displays system messages, display2 shows the last dose of insulin delivered and clock shows the current clock time. †¢ Clock Provides the controller with the current time. The system clock is initialized when the machine is installed and the start time of each 24-hour period is set at midnight each day using a hardware interface on the machine. For safety reasons, the clock cannot be altered by system users. Need: With almost 200 million with diabetes world wide and about 400,000 patients currently on insulin pumps, there is sufficient market potential to spur further development, and at least 6 companies are selling devices in the U. S. Very short clinical trials have proven the concept of a closed-loop system, but the technology must catch up for long-term implantation. By 2015 there could well be an implanted closed-loop system on the market. It will likely take several years longer before it is clear when the device is a superior alternative to other advancing technologies. Requirements for the insulin pump: This specification is a specification of the requirements for the control software for the insulin pump. It is NOT a complete system requirements specification for the pump itself or even all of the software associated with the pump. In particular, it does not include a specification of the self-testing operations or a specification of the hardware interfacing. The requirements for the insulin pump are specified in natural language and partially in the Z specification language. Z is not ideal to express all requirements but is useful when precise descriptions are required. In all cases, the Z specification should be considered as an annotation that provides detailed information which augments the natural language specification. [pic] Figure 2: Insulin pump Risks Analysis: Alarm condition Explanation: |Alarm conditions |Explanation | |Battery low |The voltage of the battery has fallen to less than 0. V | |Sensor failure |The self-test of the sugar sensor has resulted in an error | |Pump failure |The self-test of the pump has resulted in an error | |Delivery failure |It has not been possible to deliver the specified amount of insulin | |Needle assembly removed |The user has removed the needle assembly | |Insulin reservoir removed |The user has removed the insulin reservoir | |Low insulin level |The level of insulin is low (indicating that the reservoir should be changed). | Table 1: Error conditions for the insulin pump. 6. 1 Business Impact Risks: The number of the customer is fairly high. There is large number of users of insulin pump. Their need is considered consistent as all target users will be patients of diabetes. Sophistication of end users: Low, the target users are patients of diabetics. Automatic insulin pump is designed to be easy to use, and is supplied with directions to guide through all necessary steps in using the machine. 6. 2 Customer related risks: Past coordination: We are developing software because of the increased of diabetes among which children are also included. So to give them facility we are developing complete new program that will help them a lot. †¢ Customer information: Customer has the idea how to use it because of already available automatic pumps in the market but this one is more sophisticated and all directions are given with it as well. 6. 3 Technology risks: Familiarity: Automatic insulin pump is a software tool to aid diabetic patients. Development team members are familiar with software development, as well as the necessary data base implementation. Specialized user interface: The interface is completely specialized. It is not based on anything other than every other Microsoft Windows application out. The GUI is completely our design and no other application out (to our knowledge) contains exactly what is expected of our software. Risk table: |Risks |Probability |Impact | |Technology will meet expectations |25% 1 | |End user resist system |20% |1 | |Changes in requirement |20% |2 | |Lack of development experience |20% |2 | |Poor quality documentation |35% |2 | Impact Values: 1 – Catastrophic 2 – Critical 3 – Marginal 4 – Negligible 7. 1 Technology will meet expectations: †¢ Mitigation In order to prevent this from happening, meetings (formal and informal) will be held with the customer on a routine business. This in sures that the product we are producing, and the specifications of the customer are equivalent. †¢ Monitoring The meetings with the customer should ensure that the customer and our organization understand each other and the requirements for the product. Management Should the development team come to the realization that their idea of the product Specifications differs from those of the customer, the customer should be immediately notified and whatever steps necessary to rectify this problem should be done. Preferably a meeting should be held between the development team and the customer to discuss at length this issue. 7. 2 End users resist system: †¢ Mitigation In order to prevent this from happening, meetings (formal and informal) will be held with the customer on a routine business. This insures that the product we are producing, and the requirements of the customer are equivalent. †¢ Monitoring The meetings with the customer should ensure that the customer and our organization understand each other and the requirements for the product. †¢ Management Should the development team come to the realization that their idea of the product requirements differs from those of the customer, the customer should be immediately notified and whatever steps necessary to rectify this problem should be taken. Preferably a meeting should be held between the development team and the customer to discuss at length this issue. 7. 3 Changes in Requirements †¢ Mitigation In order to prevent this from happening, meetings (formal and informal) will be held with the customer on a routine business. This insures that the product we are producing, and the requirements of the customer are equivalent. †¢ Monitoring The meetings with the customer should ensure that the customer and our organization understand each other and the requirements for the product. †¢ Management Should the development team come to the realization that their idea of the product requirements differs from those of the customer, the customer should be immediately notified and whatever steps necessary to rectify this problem should be taken. Preferably a meeting should be held between the development team and the customer to discuss at length this issue. 7. 4 Lack of development experience: †¢ Mitigation In order to prevent this from happening, the development team will be required to learn the languages and techniques necessary to develop this software. The member of the team that is the most experienced in a particular facet of the development tools will need to instruct those who are not as well versed. †¢ Monitoring Each member of the team should watch and see areas where another team member may be weak. Also if one of the members is weak in a particular area it should be brought to the attention by that member, to the other members. †¢ Management The members who have the most experience in a particular area will be required to help those who don’t out should it come to the attention of the team that a particular member needs help. 7. 4 Poor quality documentation: †¢ Mitigation In order to prevent this to happening, members who are in charge of developing the documentation will keep in contact with witch developer on the team. Meeting will be held routinely to offer documentation suggestions and topics. Any topic deemed missing by a particular developer will be discussed and it will be decided whether or not to add that particular topic to that documentation. In addition, beta testers will be questioned about their opinion of the documentation. †¢ Monitoring Throughout development or normal in and out of house testing, the development team and or beta testers will need to keep their eyes open for any possible documentation topics that have not been included. †¢ Management Should this occur, the organization would call a meeting and discuss the addition of new topics, or removal of unnecessary topics into the documentation. Insulin delivery system [pic] Requirement Models [pic] Figure 3: Requirement Use Case Diagram [pic] Interfaces For The Automatic Insulin Pump The user interface displays all relevant system information to the user, as well as all controls needed to operate the system in â€Å"manual† mode. The GUI displays the current time, the last time a dose of insulin was administered, and the corresponding amount of that dose. If any hardware component malfunctions while the system is running, a system alarm indicator activates, prompting the user to check the system messages. This alarm is both auditory and visual. By scrolling through the system messages, the user can isolate the source of the error and take appropriate measures. Other indicators on the GUI show the level of charge in the battery and the amount of insulin remaining in the reservoir, there is also a history button which displays a table containing a history of blood sugar values and doses. [pic] Figure 5: System User Interface. [pic] Figure 6: System User Interface During Failure [pic] Figure 7: Table of history of the system. Besides displaying relevant system information, the user interface also functions as a control panel for manual operation of the insulin pump. To deliver a manual dose of insulin, the toggle switch controlling the operation mode must be set to manual. Once the system is running in manual mode, the user may press the â€Å"Inject 1 Unit† button to deliver one unit of insulin. Even in manual mode the system users decisions are checked make sure they do not exceed the maximum daily dose. Figure 7 illustrates the error message from attempting to deliver more than the maximum daily dosage. [pic] Figure 8: Visual Notification of Maximum Insulin Dose for the Day. In addition to the User Interface a hardware simulator was design and coded to run on beneath the insulin pump and provide the backend with different state levels for the various internal variables. Figure 8 displays the portion of the GUI that displays the internal variables. Data Flow Diagram [pic] Summary There may be at least 640,000 who good candidates for the insulin pump. It is an especially useful advance for many type 1 patients whose glucose control is difficult to manage and require several injections of insulin and glucose checks a day. It is still unclear whe n the pump is beneficial for type 2 patients. †¢ The technology has come a long way with an integrated system that continuously monitors glucose, a management system with algorithms providing advice on amount of insulin required and an external pump injecting insulin through a subcutaneous canula. This â€Å"advise you† open loop system dramatically increases the complexity of management. It has beneficial for those dedicated to its use, but it is unclear when it should be used. †¢ Diabetes experts feel current pumps (with or without continuous glucose monitoring) are best used by those who are knowledgeable, very meticulous in their diabetes management and accept fact that the system requires a lot of attention. These people value the benefits of the pump. Others do not desire using a pump system and get about the same satisfactory results with multiple daily injections as they would by trying to manage a pump. †¢ Controlled studies on the benefits of insulin pumps and continuous glucose monitoring are still needed to demonstrate a clear benefit over other aggressive therapeutic options. This applies to both type 1 and type 2 patients. †¢ The current integrated system is very expensive – up to $7,500 a year for the disposable sensors, canulas and insulin plus the cost of the pump. It requires insertion of new glucose sensors and insulin canulas every 3 days or more often and attention to detail in safely keeping all the components functioning properly. Focused attention is also required in adjusting and administering bolus insulin doses. †¢ Many insurers provide reimbursement for the pump. Diabetes advocacy groups (JDRF ADA) are working hard to secure insurance and Medicaid coverage for the continuous glucose monitoring component with its expensive disposable components. Within the next 2-4 years, an implanted pump will be available that will allow more freedom, but at more expense and risk. It will work like the new external pumps and can be used with the independent subcutaneous glucose monitor. It will not be a closed-loop system. †¢ With ov er 400,000 people worldwide currently using pumps and many more considering pump usage, there appear to be sufficient marketplace incentives to encourage technological advances. Our rough estimates suggest 650,000 in the US might benefit from these systems. References †¢ http://74. 125. 155. 132/search? q=cache:- valCGvPRHEJ:www. comp. lancs. ac. uk/computing/resources/IanS/SE7/CaseStudies/InsulinPump/Slides/Insulin-pumpOverview. ppt+scope+of+diabetes+in+software+enginee

graduate1 essays

graduate1 essays The American animation The Simpsons is now in its 10th season as a show in its own right. It was created by Matt Groening as shorts for the Tracy Ullman Show and was bought by the Fox Network, which began screening it as half-hour shows in 1989. Initially its success was restricted to the 9-16 year old age group, and for animation there is nothing remarkable about this. Its success grew quickly and it is now popular in many countries with many different audiences. "In the 1990s we are seeing dramatic transformations in media industries and media cultures. In geographical terms, these transformations may be seen in the shift from national to global media." The Simpsons can be seen as both a remarkable piece of global culture and as a hugely successful piece of global television. (One need only look on an Internet search engine to discover that there are literally millions of Simpsons fan-sites around the world.). The Simpsons themselves are a simple family in a small town in Middle Am erica called Springfield. They are: Homer (loyal but stupid father), Marge (dissatisfied, trapped housewife/mother), Bart (rebellious son), Lisa (unappreciated genius daughter), and Maggie (silent baby). The show also revolves around a number of other of the townsfolk, such as Mr Burns (Homer's miserly boss), Smithers (Burns's loving assistant), Apu (Indian shop owner), Principal Skinner and Moe (owner of the local bar). There are a number of reasons why we cannot simply view The Simpsons as a cartoon like any other. The rules and conventions that it follows are far more those of television or cinema than those of animation. The humour within The Simpsons exists on many different levels ranging from the obvious to the subtle, from the literary to the movie reference, and beyond. But most importantly we must consider the show's ability to make significant social comment, on general issues of culture and society, but more specifically on television, film and ...

Leadership in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Leadership in Nursing - Essay Example This paper approves that there are many cities across the globe that is a home for new immigrants and physicians are bound to encounter patients who are unaware of dominant language. This form of language barrier results into health disparity comprising of differential mortality rates. Communication barriers are greatly linked with length of stay in hospital and reduced health status. Physicians and patients not communicating in a common language or social structural features are able to compound a medical situation. The rapid growth of modern clinical practice appears to be a challenge for effective communication. This is mainly because decisions need to be taken quickly and are dependent on history. This essay makes a conclusion that linguistic diversity is highlighted within this report and it is evaluated in relation to doctors working for primary care. The need of language translation is a must for health professionals who are practicing overseas. To be more precise these skills support health professionals to efficiently handle diverse cultural background patients. These professionals even share knowledge and understanding of health expectations and beliefs. However there is a high need for change since interpretation skills at times might not deliver appropriate results. On the other hand, modern techniques have to be incorporated so as to meet common goals or objectives. This study would even analyze effectiveness of organizational change in relation to certain theoretical frameworks.

Strategies for Management Improvement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategies for Management Improvement - Essay Example These are what to sell and whom to sell (Stone, 2001). It is entirely related to the markets and products. In this matrix, there are four quadrants that represent four courses of action that could be considered while making any strategic decisions regarding the growth of the organization. The matrix is shown below. In this growth strategy, existing products of the organization are sold in the existing markets. There are four major objectives that could be achieved by adopting market penetration strategy. These are increasing or maintaining the current market share of the existing products, securing dominance in the growth markets, restructuring a grown-up market and finally increasing the usage of the existing products by the existing customers. Increasing or maintaining the current market share of the existing products: this objective could be attained by adopting more competitive strategies regarding pricing, advertising. Putting in more resources into personal selling might also be helpful in achieving this objective. Restructuring a grown-up market: Any mature or grown up market could be restructured by driving out the competitors. Innovative pricing strategies need to be designed so that the competitors consider the market as an unattractive one. Again extensive promotional campaign would work as a catalyst in the process. In the ‘market development’ growth strategy existing products are sold into new markets. Implementation of this strategy would include selling products in new geographical locations, establishing or finding new distribution channels and designing innovative pricing policies. One of the most effective growth strategies is introducing new products in the existing markets where the organization already has its presence. New competencies are required to develop in order to adopt this strategy. Organizations can either develop entirely new products or simply modify the existing products in order to get the attention of the customers in the existing markets.

Property Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 4

Property Law - Essay Example rchase; Dave has an equitable interest in the leasehold of the garage for the duration of ten years, and; Max has at least a vested interest in the property because he has been living in its grounds during those times when Bob was not around. The circumstances under which Peter bought the property seemingly fall squarely with the textbook definition of the term â€Å"bona fide purchaser for value without notice.† A bona fide purchaser for value without notice is defined as a buyer of the land for a considerable sum of money without knowledge of existing equitable interests over the land. Title at law is enforceable against the whole world. â€Å"A person who is such a bona fide purchaser for value and without notice is known as ‘equity’s darling’, and will take a legal estate free from equitable interests.1 In other words, a bona fide purchaser for value with legal title and without notice therefore has a right against everyone including equitable titles and interests. Bob contributed to the purchase price in the amount of GBP 50, 000 and took up residence within the Wimbledon Property, first in the main house and later, when his relationship with Vicky went sour, converted the barn to a residential building and continued his residency there. His clothes and his other things are left in the converted barn. Albeit that he now lives during the weekdays with a girlfriend in the city, he showed no intention of abandoning his stay in Wimbledon. As a matter of fact, he allowed his brother Max to keep house during the times he was away. On the basis of his contribution to the purchase of the house, Bob has acquired an equitable right over the property, notwithstanding that this was an amount not so huge vis-à  -vis Vicky’s GBP 400.000. Prior to the present land registration law viz., The Land Registration Act of 2002, there was no need to register equitable interests, only ownership over the land. As discussed above, however, even equitable rights can be defeated.

Effectiveness of Interventions for Emotional Eating

Effectiveness of Interventions for Emotional Eating Peer review: Does educating pupils on emotional eating have a positive effect on their emotional eating behaviours? Summary of aims, rationale and hypotheses The applicant proposes an intervention for controlling emotional eating because emotional eating often has been linked to obesity, which is a major concern in the UK. This proposal focuses on prevention by giving people information about the topic via seminars before the emotional eating started. The applicant extended previous research about the assumption that stress can cause emotional eating and that eating disorders, such as obesity, binge eating and anorexia nervosa, are linked to emotional eating. A lot of emotions, such as arousal, fear, boredom and a negative mood can lead to food intake. The applicant focused on research about interventions on alcohol use and abuse and the success of these interventions because the participants behaviours and attitudes were changed. Three key parts were mentioned: drinking alcohol wont turn everybody in an alcoholic, the act of drinking is normal, but abusive drinking isnt and education starts early. This proposal hypothesized that pupils w ho receive emotional eating seminars, compared to pupils who receive litter picking seminars, will alter their behaviours and their emotional eating scores will reduce by educating them about emotional eating and thereby reduce obesity levels, trying to receive long-term outcomes. Summary of methods and expected results The applicant found 140 pupils from year 9, between the age of 13 and 14. These pupils were split up in two groups. The experimental group received the emotional eating seminars, while the control group received seminars about litter picking. Afterwards, the applicant used the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, particularly the part about emotional eating and participants had to add their height and weight. Participants asked to fill in the questionnaire twice, once in the beginning and once at the end of term. Both groups were asked to fill in another short questionnaire at the end of each seminar to measure the impact of the seminar on their behaviour. The proposal expected to see a change in the behaviour of the pupils in terms of emotional eating and that pupils have a better chance of noticing these eating behaviours. Summary of limitation and challenges The applicant mentioned that previous research found little gender differences and therefore this proposal does not account for gender differences. Secondly, because increased stress causes an increased food consumption, the applicant found an additional test. Pupils were shown a stress inducing video while having snacks in front of them. The bowl was weighed before and after they had watched the video. Third, litter picking was chosen as the control variable because the applicant assumed that it had nothing to do with emotional eating. Constructive suggestions on how to improve the proposal (385) This proposal is very useful because it highlights a major problem in our society, obesity. Obesity is a worldwide problem with a lot of health problems, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and cancer (Wang et al, 2011). Therefore, research is necessary to find preventions and interventions for this problem because researcher expect 11 million obese adults more in the UK by 2030 (ibid). Another good part about this proposal is that the questionnaires are quantitative, which means that it based on a measurement, for example a five-point scale, and that this study consists of numbers, which makes this proposal more valid. The extra stress test is very good to control the reliability of the questionnaire scores and therefore to measure a third variable, which might make the proposal again more valid. However, this proposal has it flaws. First, this proposal is not neuro-cognitive. Nothing in this study measures something neurological. The applicant could have measured brain activi ty in participants while they were eating before and after the seminars, in both, the control and the experimental group, to see if something changed neurologically while they were eating after the seminars compared to before the seminars, for example, the experimental group might think more about what they eat and how much instead of just eating without thinking at all. Secondly, only two seminars might not be enough. Most studies who use prevention methods, such as seminars, were longitudinally (Hivert et al., 2007; Keller, 1978; Schnell Doetkott, 2003). It might be better if the applicant would have done this study for two years or so, which would mean that every group would have for example 12 seminars each year for two years long. A longitudinal study gives more long-term outcomes instead of only short-term outcomes (Schnell Doetkott, 2003). The applicant is doing this study in only one school. It might be better to take participants out of different schools because it is pos sible that one school pays more attention to what their students eat or pay more attention to prevent unhealthy children than another school, which could affect the study. Therefore, more schools should be participating this study to make it more valid. Is the proposal feasible? Are the requested resources well justified? This proposal seems very feasible. The requested resources are well justified and the study shouldnt be too difficult to conduct. How novel is the proposal? This proposal is not a really new study, but not adopted either. Daubenmier et al. (2011) suggested a mindfulness intervention, based on therapy, instead of seminars. Although the intention of both is the same, the study differs in certain respects. Hivert et al. (2007) did a study that is very alike to this proposal, only they did the study on participants, who were already obese. What is the intentional impact of this proposal? Given that this study might already have been done and the few limitations, this study is not unnecessary. The impact in this proposal is to prevent eating disorders. Good in this study is that, if it works, it prevents eating disorders before they even come up compared to other studies, who only start these interventions when it is already too late. REFERENCES Daubenmier, J., Kristeller, J., Hecht, F. M., Maninger, N., Kuwata, M., Jhaveri, K., Epel, E. (2011). Mindfulness intervention for stress eating to reduce cortisol and abdominal fat among overweight and obese women: an exploratory randomized controlled study.  Journal of obesity,  2011. Hivert, M. F., Langlois, M. F., Berard, P., Cuerrier, J. P., Carpentier, A. C. (2007). Prevention of weight gain in young adults through a seminar-based intervention program.  International Journal of Obesity,  31(8), 1262-1269.. Keller, R. T. (1978). A Longitudinal Assessment of a Managerial Grid ® Seminar Training Program.Group Organization Management,  3(3), 343-355. Schnell, C. A., Doetkott, C. D. (2003). First year seminars produce long-term impact.Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice,  4(4), 377-391. Wang, Y. C., McPherson, K., Marsh, T., Gortmaker, S. L., Brown, M. (2011). Health and economic burden of the projected obesity trends in the USA and the UK.  The Lancet,  378(9793), 815-825.

steroids :: essays research papers

Twenty years ago, when I was a competing professional athlete, I spoke publicly of the frustration of feeling pressured to use anabolic steroids. I felt pressured to compete in an environment where I and many others believed there was an unbridled problem. I mentioned the prevalence of use in adolescents and commented on the training advantage using these drugs gave competitors. At that time, NFL management denied the extent of the problem and little was done. The NFL, to its credit, in 1987 started its non-punitive testing program and proclaimed it was considering random testing. In 1988, in a Sports Illustrated commentary, I predicted the failure of random testing, citing obvious loopholes, and questioned the overall concern of the fans. I solicited the ire of some in the sports media when I suggested medical supervision as an alternative to faulty drug testing. However, you can't monitor a drug problem medically that society wants to pretend doesn't exist. Another issue I wanted to bring forward was urging people to keep the health effects of these drugs in perspective, as well as the sports world's tendency to define this as primarily a public relations issue. I still wonder why some of the reporting of my situation either ignored or minimized some of my known lifestyle heart risk factors (alcohol abuse, for example) in preference to highlighting steroids. Happily, the severity of my health issues and my former addictions are a thing of the past. In the wake of the BALCO scandal and the revelations in Major League Baseball, do any of these issues ring familiar? None of the BALCO athletes (clients of the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative) have ever flunked a drug test. Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig is citing drops in numbers of positive tests in "announced" testing as reasons for optimism. After 20 years of researching this issue, I have earned my pessimism. Has he earned his optimism? For those paying attention at all, the BALCO investigation has reinforced the reality that athletes are using undetectable drugs. Perhaps the optimism in testing is because there is no plan B and Selig is tired of the drug allegations. In 1989, the NFL initiated random testing. This was a smart move for two reasons. First, it showed media and the public that they implemented the strongest policy that technology and the law would allow. Second, it was prior to impending legislation (the 1990 Steroid Anti-Trafficking Act) that re-classified anabolic steroids under Schedule III of the Controlled Substance Act.

Analysis of Bandura’s Cognitive Theory and Beck’s Cognitive Theory

The study of human behavior or behaviorism focuses on attributes of humanity that are discernible, measurable and which can be manipulated. The emphasis of behaviorism is on experimental methods and avoids attributes that are subjective, internal or unavailable.The experimental method involves the manipulation of one variable and measurement of its effect on another variable. It is from the study of variable and effects that a Canadian psychologist, Albert Bandura found the cognitive theory (or social cognitive theory) (Bandura, 2006).Bandura for instance observed aggressive behavior in adolescents and opined that the aggressiveness is caused by the environment in which the adolescents grow. On the other hand, he also realized that behavior causes an environment as well.Thus, since behavior and environment are causes and effects of each other, Bandura referred to the concept as reciprocal determinism (Bandura1986). In short, Bandura’s theory was based on the fact that the worl d and a person’s character (behavior) affect each other (Bandura, 1986).While it would appear that the environment was the cause of behavior and personality, Bandura also realized that personality is an interaction of a person’s psychological responses in relation to the environment (Bandura, 2006).The psychological processes consist of the human being’s ability to entertain different images and languages. Thus, the cognitive theory is built on two essential principles. The first one is a framework for explaining how different personalities function, whereas the other one addresses the type of variables (that is the elements of analysis) on which the personality theory should be centred (Bandura, 2006).In analysis of the influence of reciprocal determinism, Bandura categorically uses the word â€Å"determinism† to imply the aspect in which effects are produced by events (Bandura, 2006). However, this opinion does not mean that a human being’s actio ns arise from straightforward and predictable chains of cause and consequence.Rather, it implies that events produce effects by chance. As a result, the probability or chance of an event producing an effect is emphasized in Bandura’s cognitive theory (Bandura, 2006). Perhaps the most significant aspect of Bandura’s theory is the way in which the theory treats behavior.Unlike many other theoretical frameworks, this theory has equal action on both the input of the personality and the output of personality (Bandura, 1986). In essence, Bandura’s opinion is that a person’s actions and the resultant effects shape the person’s aptitude, feelings and belief in one self (Bandura, 2006).For example, many behaviorist theories depict scant curiosity in self-process because the theorists assume that human functioning is caused by external stimulus rather than the internal stimulus which is only considered as transmitting rather than causing behavior (Bandura, 1 986).This paper critically evaluates the notable features of Bandura’s cognitive theory and discusses in detail the viewpoint of the Bandura at the time of formulation of the theory and the theory’s subsequent modification.The paper will also appraise the strengths and weaknesses of the theory based on the discussion. Analysis of the salient features of Bandura’s cognitive theory The most notable feature of Bandura’s social cognitive theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1986).Reciprocal determinism is a phenomenon that implies the causes and effects of different actions on behavior and environment and how they affect each other. Thus, Bandura’s theory was based on the point that personal factors in the form of cognition, biological events and affect, behavior and environmental factors create interfaces that result in a triadic reciprocality as illustrated in Figure 1. Bandura modified the label of his theory from the common per spective of social learning to social cognitive in order to distance it from the common social learning theories of his time (Bandura, 1986).He also wanted to lay emphasis on the idea that cognition plays a significant role in people’s capability to construct reality, regulate their personality, encode information and display other kinds of behavior. According to Bandura (1971), the reciprocal form of the determinants of individual human functioning in social cognitive theory enables services such as therapeutic and counseling efforts to be rendered with focus on personal environment or behavioral factors as illustrated in the diagram above.Based on this, strategies to improve a person’s well-being can be aimed at ameliorating the emotional, cognitive and motivational process of the human being (Bandura, 1986). The focus can also be on improving behavioral capabilities or changing the communal conditions under which people live and work.As an example, teachers in schoo ls have a role to not only improve their students’ academic learning and confidence, but also boost their (students’) self-beliefs and habits of thinking. Hence, teachers and students have to embrace all the components of Bandura’s triadic expression of cognitive theory.As earlier mentioned, Bandura’s social cognitive theory sets itself aside from other theories that overemphasize the role played by environmental factors in the development of human behavior (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 2006).These theories are often dismissed since they have the redundant factor of cause and effect that is unworthy in the context of evaluating the psychological aspect of human beings. Thus according to Bandura, psychology per se without a clear self-examination cannot purport to explain the complexities of human intricacies of human functioning.Bandura (1986) further noted it is by evaluating their own conscious minds that people discern their own psychological processes. The refore, in order to predict how the human behavior is affected by environmental outcomes, it is imperative that the individual’s cognitive process and how he or she interprets the outcomes be understood.Personal determinants An important factor in addressing how a person interprets the outcomes is recognition of the personal determinants. This is affected by the choice of variables to be used in the evaluation process.Bandura’s choice for such variable depicts what may be the most distinctive aspect of human life, that is, people have abilities to adapt to different environments (Bandura, 1986). For instance, people are able to live in a variety of physical environments such as deserts, rainforests, Polar Regions and so on.They are also able to live and engage in a variety of social environments such as nomadic systems, diverse religious beliefs, different socio economic and socio cultural activities and so on. People also exhibit a variety of unique capabilities that cannot be attributed to the occurrence of evolution over time (Bandura, 1971).In fact, the list of human beings’ unique capabilities relative to animals cannot be exhausted in a single book. Hence, in order to perform an analysis of psychological functioning, one must specify the psychological mechanisms that facilitate the unique capabilities. Bandura’s (1986) theory has a focal point on the cognitive methods that enable people to learn about the world around them (environment) and also about themselves, and use the knowledge gained to control their behavior and mental experiences.In particular, Bandura (1986) enlisted five basic capabilities that facilitate the learning process, as described below. Symbolizing capability implies the ability of people to represent their knowledge symbolically. The most common symbolic representation or conveyance of messages is language (Bandura, 1971). The ability to use symbols in terms of language is perhaps the most fundamental ca pability in human beings as it serves as a leeway for the other capabilities.Vicarious capability is the ability to acquire skills, knowledge and other emotional tendencies through observation or a similar approach (Bandura, 1971). Bandura’s (2006) assiduous analysis of vicarious processes that are involved in acquiring skills makes the cognitive theory not only realistic but also unusually easy to comprehend and interpret. In addition, it clears most of the issues that are usually overlooked by psychological theories such how people acquire knowledge and skills that enable them to act efficiently.According to Bandura (1997), vicarious capability enables people to keep away from risky or costly undertakings that could lead to fatal outcomes. This is because the people ideally have a sense of experience by observing their own characters relative to the characters or behavior of others.Bandura (1986) referred to the ability to anticipate future contingencies as the forethought capability of human beings. Forethought capability is vital for both emotional and motivational perspectives of life.For instance, contrary to popular belief, psychological distress arises from peoples’ anticipated dreadful experiences and not the present or actual experiences. It is because of the ability to derive alternative approaches that one can foresee the consequences of an action without actually being involved in it.According to Bandura (1986), the fourth unique human capability is the self-regulatory capability. This is the capacity of an individual to set goals. In addition, this capability allows individuals to evaluate their performance in relation to their own (internal) standards of performance.Bandura (1986) further noted that the ability of people to evaluate their self-concept, esteem and values enables them have a sense of self-direction and ability to lead life without much reliance on others. Much similar to the above capability is the self-reflective ca pability.According to Bandura (1997), this is the capacity of human beings to have personal thoughts. In this context, personal reflections lay a course for action and formulation of ideas by individuals based on self-efficacy. The aforementioned capabilities do not work in isolation but in concert.In particular, according to Bandura (1997), the aspects of self-reflection, self-regulation and forethought act in synergy to form a self-system, which comprises the framework of personality. Furthermore, people are able to control their emotions and social lives by integrating the constituents of the self-system (Bandura, 1986).Self-reflection in particular is â€Å"distinctly human† and forms a prominent feature of the social cognitive theory. Through self-reflection, individuals derive sense from their experiences and embrace their cognitions and self-beliefs.Consequently, they are able to engage in self-evaluation and are able to shift their thinking and behavior accordingly (B andura, 1986). Self-efficacy When the capabilities so far described are integrated effectively, the self-system acquires a state of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).Perceived self-efficacy refers to people’s ability to evaluate their own efficiencies in solving problems and attaining certain levels of performance (Bandura, 1997). The relevance of perceived self-efficacy to the social cognitive theory postulated by Bandura is that self-efficacy judgments have a pervasive role in human affairs.In the scope of both achievements and interpersonal relationships, people’s stances are calculated by how effectively (and wisely) they can make decisions and how efficiently they can act in fulfilling the decisions taken. From the above perspective, it is evident that evaluation between an individual’s skills and the requirements of the environment is pertinent in determining the courses of action that are viewed as being the determinants of one’s personality. Efficacy beliefs are vital in that not only do they act on overt behavior but they also address the internal psychological affairs of individuals.This is an important aspect of the social cognition theory with respect to the triadic scheme. This is because an individual’s personality is judged from acts that are done both overtly and covertly. In view of Bandura’s (1997) ideas, people with robust perceptions of their efficacy envisage more positive futures, experience less distressing emotions, and are capable of planning for their life programs more effectively. In addition, such people are able to deal with demanding tasks more efficiently than people who have lower opinion of their efficacy. How personal determinants relate with individual differences and dispositionsWith reference to Bandura (1999), the basic capacities of the social cognitive theory are dissimilar in three ways from the units of measurement employed in the character-related theories of personality. To begi n with, the capabilities are not single variable differences with reference to personality.For instance, Bandura (1999) accentuated that a single-difference analysis may hinder the realization of other vital capabilities possessed by an individual. Such an instance would occur if the ability in an individual is rare and is therefore not detected as an important factor in analysis (Bandura, 1999).As is common with many forms of analysis, there is usually an investigation for a small number of primary units of variation, or for capabilities that are common but possessed to uniformly high level by many individuals.The fact that almost everyone possesses a unique capability (for example the ability to use symbols of the ability to be self-reflective and self–conscious) does not necessarily make the capabilities less important in the context of the functioning of personality. These capabilities are still important in spite of the fact that they may not be identified as the primary dimensions of individual dissimilarity.The second difference in the context of the capabilities in the social cognitive theory is related to average tendencies. For instance, Bandura’s (1999) category of cognitive capabilities does not just mention the average tendencies.Rather, Bandura opines that self-reflection and self-regulation contribute to both constancy and variability of actions among individuals. Along this line, it is important to note that people’s goals, choices and cognitive abilities are displayed in the manner in which they act and handle different circumstances that they come across in their lives.This point is of importance in describing an individual’s personality (Bandura, 1999). It implies that dispositional characteristics per se cannot suffice the description of personality as they refer to the average tendencies in behavior and are devoid of reference to particular individuals (Bandura, 1999).In addition, a single individual’s so cial cognitive may not contribute significantly to the distinct patterns of behavior that are not in line with the contemporary descriptive characteristics that are used in the analysis of standard individual difference categories.The third point is that the social cognitive theory’s definition of personality and the role personality factors play in contribution to social behavior is significantly different from the dispositional approach. The social cognitive theory does not view dispositional tendencies as personality structures. Instead, the theory realizes personality structures as consisting of cognitive and affective systems, which contribute to the patterns of individuals’ behavior in a much informal way. These, according to Bandura (1999), are the dispositional tendencies.In this context therefore, dispositions are effects and not causes. Bandura opposed the proponents of personality description based on behavior as being mistaken since the aspects of behaviora l description â€Å"locate the personality structure in the wrong place† (Bandura, 1999, p 200).Therefore, the Bandura’s social cognitive theory views the standard dispositional units of personality description as being inadequate to fully describe an individual or to explain his or her personality functioning. Strengths and weaknesses of the theoryAs discussed, Bandura’s theory has many points of strength, notable of which being that it describes the relationship between behavior and the environment. In addition, the theory gives a clear picture of how behaviors are learned and developed.On the other hand, it is evident that the theory puts too much emphasis on what happens to people rather than what the people do. Along the same line, the theory does not address consistent differences among individuals as they go through different developmental stages. a

The Essentials of Timber and Tree Marking Symbols

The Essentials of Timber and Tree Marking Symbols Timber marking symbols using paint and other tree scribing methods are not universally accepted in North American forests. There is no national code that mandates the use of painted slashes, dots, circles and Xs. There is no color used as a code that is more than a regional preference and usually accepted only locally. Even the United States Forest Service uses different marks and colors depending on the national forest and/or national forest region. However, there are many reasons to mark trees and forest timber. Trees may be marked to indicate a tree to be cut or left as per the forest management plan. Trees on forest boundary lines can be marked to indicate property ownership. Trees inside large forests can be permanently marked as part of a forest inventory system. Forest Tree Marking Meanings There are no national tree marking standards even if many of them are similar. Forestry organizations have tried for years to set a few guidelines for tree and timber marks. But foresters are an independent breed and many see their tree marking designs and system as their personal or company imprint or brand. Circles, number of slashes and other quick paint spurts, including stump marks, usually signifies cutting status along with the quality or grade of the tree marked. Boundary line colors often designate land belonging to a particular owner and usually painted over some removed bark (scars) to last longer. Marks Used in Selecting a Tree to Cut Selecting trees to cut is the most common mark made, often done using paint. Unmarked trees that are left usually have the best potential to make the most productive future second crop. The paint color is usually blue on trees to be cut and the trees intended product is identified by different paint slashes and symbols. Again, you are actually selecting the best trees with potential value by not marking them. There is a system described in the Wisconsin DNR Silviculture Handbook on trees to be marked that ensure the production of high-quality sawtimber products. The selection of trees to cut should apply the following order of removal to achieve the desired residual stand composition and structure. Nel-spot Paint Company manufactures the most popular paints used by the forest industry and their very popular blue is the most often used paint used to denote a tree to be used. 6 Reasons to Mark a Tree for Removal High risk of mortality or failure (unless retained as a wildlife tree)Poor stem form and qualityLess desirable speciesRelease of future crop treesLow crown vigorImprove spacing This order of removal will vary with landowner goals, the stand management plan, and silvicultural treatment. Examples would be a shelterwood seed cut that would open the forest floor to tree regeneration or the permanent removal of exotic invasive species. Removal of undesirable species would preserve the quality of an expected new stand. Marks Used for Boundary Lines Maintaining forest boundary lines is one major duty of the forest manager and tree marking is a part of that. Most forest landowners generally know where their boundary lines are and have accurately surveyed maps and photography but very few have their lines marked clearly on the ground. A clearly marked boundary is the best evidence that you know where your landlines are. Marked boundaries minimize the risk of problems, such as timber trespass, caused by others making inaccurate assumptions about your boundaries. They also help you avoid trespassing on your neighbors’ land when you cut trees or build roads and trails. Colored plastic ribbon or â€Å"flagging† is often used as a temporary location of boundary lines but should be followed by more permanent blazing and/or painting trees along and near the line. Make sure you are using the latest recorded survey. 5 Steps to Mark Your Forest Boundary Contacting your boundary neighbor is courtesy at its best as new line claims can cause disagreements.An axed blaze 5-6† long and 3-4† wide at 4 to 5 feet above the ground should be made. Limit the cut to just enough bark and outer wood to make it visible.  Avoid blazing over old blazes as they become supporting evidence of the original location of the line.Paint both the blazed surface including 1-2† of bark (to over-paint forming callous tissue).  Use a bright (fluorescent blue, red, or orange seem to work best) durable brush-on paint. Nel-spot makes great boundary paint.Many timber company forest owners blaze side trees on the line side it faces. This exactness can be helpful but takes a recent survey line for exactness.Mark trees close enough so that from any mark you can see the next mark in either direction.

Expert Guide How Long Is the SAT

Expert Guide How Long Is the SAT SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Studying for the SAT isn’t just about practicing math problems and passage reading- it's also an exercise in timing and pacing. The sheer length of the SAT test, as well as its difficult content, can make it an intimidating challenge. Read on for our guide to the SAT’s length, individual section times, and section ordering. Moreover, learn how to deal with fatigue during the test. Detailed Guide: SAT Test Length The SAT is three hours (180 minutes) long in total, excluding the optional essayand breaks. With the optional essay, the total test time increases to three hours and 50 minutes. Here's an overview of the SAT test length: Section Order on Test Total # of Questions Total Time (Minutes) Reading 1 52 65 Break 1 2 - 10 Writing and Language 3 44 35 Math No Calculator 4 20 25 Break 2 5 - 5 Math Calculator 6 38 55 Break 3 7 - 2 Essay (Optional) 8 1 50 The Math section is the only section separated into two pieces: a No Calculator and a Calculator section. As you can see, the No Calculator section comes first and asks 20 questions in 25 minutes, while the Calculator section comes second and asks 38 questions in 55 minutes. Altogether, then, you'll get 58 questions and 80 minutes for Math. You'll also get a total of three breaks (two if you're not taking the optional Essay): A10-minute break after the Readingsection but before the Writing and Language section Afive-minute break after the Math No Calculator section but before the Math Calculator section A very short two-minute breakafter the Math Calculator section (if you're staying for the Essay section, that is- otherwise, you're done and may leave!) The SAT Isn't Just Long- It's Also Intense The SAT is a long test- more than four hours, from check-in to the end (if you're doing the essay)! However, it can feel as though it moves fairly quickly because of the number of questions you have to answer on each section. Here is an overview of the number of questions you'll have on each SAT section, in addition to the approximate time you'll have to answer each question: Section # of Questions Total Time Time per Question Reading 52 65 minutes 1 minute 15 seconds Writing and Language 44 35 minutes 47 seconds Math No Calculator 20 25 minutes 1 minute 15 seconds Math Calculator 38 55 minutes 1 minute 26 seconds Even though your approximate time per question is usually more than a minute, on the actual SAT things will be a little more complicated. First of all, you'll likely move through easier questions much more quickly and need more time for harder questions. Secondly, if you want to leave time at the end of a section to check your answers, you'll have to spend less time on each question. Keep in mind that for the Reading and Writing sections, you will also have to spend some time reading the passages. In addition, note that stamina is incredibly important. While the old SAT broke up the test into 10 small sections, the current SAT forces you to tackle each subject in one large chunk. Two out of four sections are just about an hour long.So not only do you have to move quickly question-to-question, but you also need to maintain your test-taking speed for a long period of time. Building that kind of stamina takes practice! How to Prepare for the SAT Exam Length: 3 Tips Below, we go over our three best tips for preparing for the SAT exam length. These will help you feel prepared for test day and teach you how to stay focused during the exam. #1: Take Full-Length SAT Practice Tests The best way to prepare for the timing and intensity of the SAT is to take full-length, strictly timed practice tests.This way, even if you're someone who easily gets tired during long stretches of testing, you can get used to the SAT’s format and time expectations. Make sure you're usingofficial practice tests (i.e., those created by the College Board). Don't rely on old practice tests to help you out since these differ a lot from the current SAT structure. Be sure to print out your test ahead of time and find a quiet place to take it, such as a library. As you take your test, time yourself as you'll be timed on the actual SAT.This means no giving yourself extra time on a section and no skipping ahead if you finish one early! You should also take the breaks as described in the table at the beginning of this article. You need to build up endurance and practice your pacing for the SAT- just like training for a race. #2: Do Practice Tests on Weekends The best time to take official SAT practice tests is on a Saturday or Sunday morning so you can get a good idea of what your energy level will be like the day of the actual test. Sure, it might be easier to fit in a practice test late on a Sunday night, but you'll have to take the real test in the morning, so you should practice with that time in mind. Pretend you're waking up for the actual test. Waking up early and jumping into an SAT practice test probably isn’t your ideal way to start a Saturday,but it’s the best way to be prepare for the actual SAT. Plus, it'll preserve your Saturday afternoon and evening for more fun activities! #3: Time Yourself on Individual Practice Sections As you study for the different SAT sections, make sure to periodically take an entire practice section with only the time you're given on the test. For example, after a week of focusing on SAT Reading, take one or two Reading practice tests and give yourself 65 minutes- the time you'll have on the actual exam for that section. This will allow you to get used to the timing on the SAT and furtherbuild up your test-taking stamina. What’s Next? Now that you know how long the test will take, read about the best places to take the SAT. Want additional SAT help? Get tips on how to work quickly and save time during the SAT. Preparing for test day?Check out our top test-day tips so you can be both mentally and physically ready to take on the SAT. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today!

Contemporary Corporate Governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Contemporary Corporate Governance - Essay Example From the research it can be comprehended that governance refers to governing someone with the help of some specified system, policies and principles. Thus corporate governance can be described as the principles, specified processes, policies and systems which are used to govern a company. The principles of corporate governance acts as the guidelines which are used to control the activates of the company so that it can it can achieve its objectives at the same time it can also add value to the organisation in such a way so that the stakeholders can be benefited in long run. Thus corporate governance helps the management to operate in such a way so that not only the shareholders but also the other investors, employees, customer and the society as a whole can be benefited from the actions of the company. The basic premise behind the principles of corporate governance is to enable the organization to conduct its activities with fairness, maintain transparency in its operations and transa ctions, disclose all the relevant information, comply with all the rules, regulations and laws, being responsible accountable to all its stakeholders and to maintain the code of ethics while conducting its activities. Practice of ethical activities is an important part of the corporate governance. Good corporate governance enables the company to achieve investors’ confidence and achieve goodwill in the industry. Thus corporate governance is not only important for the stakeholders but also for the company too. (Thomson, 2009). OECD has described corporate governance as a system through which companies and other business organisations can be controlled as well as directed. Corporate governance helps to setup a structure as per which the responsibilities and the rights of the various members of the companies like the board of directors, employees, shareholders etc can be specified. Corporate governance set the rules, regulations and the processes of decision making regarding the activities of the company. The corporate governance helps the company in setting up the companies objectives and goals and also enable the company assess its performance and helps in achieving them. Corporate govern

Corporate Debt Ratings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Corporate Debt Ratings - Essay Example Rating Agency Criteria. When setting the actual rating for a specific company, most credit rating agencies use different criteria for different industries. This makes perfect sense because it would not be reasonable to evaluate a financial services company in the same way that a retail products manufacturer is analyzed. Although there are different ways of looking at different companies, most investment credit rating issuers use four general categories to determine an organization's financial health. The first category used is the size of the company. Although size is not always an indicator of financial health, it does impact a company's credit because larger companies usually have more "resources...which can reduce volatility and lower credit risk" (Lee 7). This means that a larger company can survive a period of lower sales or higher expenses, and will not default on its debt as quickly as a smaller company might if the economy turns down. Investors, especially those that invest in debt instruments like bonds, are very concerned with an organization's ability to pay its debts. Another important criterion is that of product diversity and profitability. If an organization is dependent upon only one or two products to provide its primary revenue, it is more likely to have difficulty repaying its debts than a company that has many hundreds of products. Also, if the profitability of the product line is high, the organization is more likely to have the money needed to pay interest or dividends; meaning that it is a better investment than a company that makes less on its sales. A third consideration for credit rating companies and investors to consider is the financial strength of the company itself. This is a function of balance sheet information that reflects such quantifiable values as debt-to-equity ratios, liquidity analysis, gross profit margins, and return on investment. The financial strength of a company is also shown by the amount of sales it has had, the amount of cash in the bank, how much money it owes to its creditors, and other financial information. Finally, the credit rating services will examine an organization's financial policies to ensure that it is conducting its business according to appropriate laws and accounting rules. This category of analysis helps investors to have confidence that the reports the company issues are accurate, and that there is a less likely chance that negative financial information will be undiscovered or ignored. There are other criteria used by rating services, but these four show how a combination of items can reflect the relative financial strength of an organization. If a company is large with many different products, a lot of cash in the bank, and always reporting its financial information accurately, it is much more likely to survive any economic crisis than an organization that is small, poor, and dishonest. The higher rating given to the better company lets investors know that their money is less likely to be lost due to default. Rating Agency Importance. Investment ratings from these agencies are very